Himera Sicily 420bc Quality Authentic Ancient Rare Greek Coin Nymph & Laurel

May 20th, 2012 | e Ancient Greek Coins | Comments Off

Himera Sicily 420bc Quality Authentic Ancient Rare Greek Coin Nymph & Laurel is available for sale on eBay at $450.00 (subject to changes) for a limited time. Buy it now at low price.

Item: i28206

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Greek city of Himera in Sicily
Bronze Hemilitron 15mm (3.29 grams) Struck 420-408 B.C.

Reference: Sear 1110; B.M.C. 2.54

Head of nymph Himera left, wearing sphendone; six pellets before.
Six pellets within laurel-wreath.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of

Authenticity.

A nymph in

Greek mythology is a female minor nature deity
typically associated with a particular location or landform. Different from
gods, nymphs are generally regarded as divine spirits who animate nature, and
are usually depicted as beautiful, young

nubile maidens who love to dance and sing;
their amorous freedom sets them apart from the restricted and chaste wives and
daughters of the Greek

polis. They are believed to dwell in
mountains and

groves, by springs and rivers, and also in
trees and in valleys and cool

grottoes. Although they would never die of old
age nor illness, and could give birth to fully immortal children if mated to a
god, they themselves were not necessarily immortal, and could be beholden to
death in various forms. Charybdis and Scylla were once nymphs.

Other nymphs, always in the shape of young maidens, were part of the

retinue of a god, such as

Dionysus,

Hermes, or

Pan, or a goddess, generally the huntress

Artemis. Nymphs were the frequent target of

satyrs. They are frequently associated with the
superior divinities: the huntress

Artemis; the prophetic

Apollo; the reveller and god of

wine,

Dionysus; and rustic gods such as Pan and
Hermes.

Nymphs are personifications of the creative and fostering activities of
nature, most often identified with the life-giving outflow of springs: as

Walter Burkert (Burkert 1985:III.3.3) remarks,
"The idea that rivers are gods and springs divine nymphs is deeply rooted not
only in poetry but in belief and ritual; the worship of these deities is limited
only by the fact that they are inseparably identified with a specific locality."

The

Greek word
νύμφη has "bride" and "veiled" among its meanings: hence a marriageable
young woman. Other readers refer the word (and also

Latin nubere and

German Knospe) to a root expressing the
idea of "swelling" (according to

Hesychius, one of the meanings of
νύμφη is "rose-bud").

Himera (Greek:
Ἱμέρα), was an important

ancient Greek city of

Sicily,
situated on the north coast of the island, at the mouth of the river of the same
name (the modern

Grande), between Panormus (modern

Palermo) and
Cephaloedium (modern

Cefalù). Its
remains lie within the borders of the modern

comune of

Termini Imerese.

Remains of the Temple of Victory.
Ideal reconstruction of the Temple of Victory.

History

Foundation
and earliest history

It was the first Greek settlement on this part of the island and was a
strategic outpost just outside the eastern boundary of the

Carthaginian-controlled west.

Thucydides
says it was the only Greek city on this coast of Sicily,^[1]
which must however be understood with reference only to independent cities;

Mylae, which was also on the north coast, and certainly of Greek origin,
being a dependency of

Zancle (modern

Messina). All
authorities agree that Himera was a colony of Zancle, but Thucydides tells us
that, with the emigrants from Zancle, who were of Chalcidic origin, were mingled
a number of

Syracusan exiles, the consequence of which was, that, though the
institutions (νόμιμα) of the new city
were Chalcidic, its dialect had a mixture of

Doric.

The foundation of Himera is placed subsequent to that of Mylae (as, from
their relative positions, might naturally have been expected) both by

Strabo and

Scymnus Chius:
its date is not mentioned by Thucydides, but

Diodorus tells us that it had existed 240 years at the time of its
destruction by the Carthaginians, which would fix its first settlement in

648 BCE.^[2]
We have very little information as to its early history: an obscure notice in

Aristotle,^[3]
from which it appears to have at one time fallen under the dominion of the
tyrant
Phalaris,
being the only mention we find of it, until about

490 BCE,
when it afforded a temporary refuge to

Scythes,
tyrant of Zancle, after his expulsion from the latter city.^[4]
Not long after this event, Himera fell itself under the yoke of a despot named

Terillus,
who sought to fortify his power by contracting a close alliance with

Anaxilas,
at that time ruler both of Rhegium (modern

Reggio di Calabria) and Zancle. But Terillus was unable to resist the power
of

Theron,
despot of Agrigentum (modern

Agrigento),
and, being expelled by him from Himera, had recourse to the assistance of the
Carthaginians, a circumstance which became the immediate occasion of the first
great expedition of that people to Sicily,

480 BCE.^[5]

First
interaction with Carthage

The magnitude of the armament sent under

Hamilcar,
who is said to have landed in Sicily with an army of 300,000 men, in itself
sufficiently proves that the conquest of Himera was rather the pretext, than the
object, of the war: but it is likely that the growing power of that city, in the
immediate neighborhood of the Carthaginian settlements of Panormus and

Solus, had already given umbrage to the latter people. Hence it was against
Himera that the first efforts of Hamilcar were directed: but Theron, who had
thrown himself into the city with all the forces at his command, was able to
maintain its defence till the arrival of

Gelon of Syracuse, who, notwithstanding the numerical inferiority of his
forces, defeated the vast army of the Carthaginians with such slaughter that the

Battle of Himera was regarded by the Greeks of Sicily as worthy of
comparison with the contemporary victory of

Salamis.^[6]
The same feeling probably gave rise to the tradition or belief, that both
triumphs were achieved on the very same day.^[7]

After
the Battle of Himera

This great victory left Theron in the undisputed possession of the
sovereignty of Himera, as well as of that of Agrigentum; but he appears to have
bestowed his principal attention upon the latter city, and consigned the
government of Himera to his son

Thrasydaeus. But the young man, by his violent and oppressive rule, soon
alienated the minds of the citizens, who in consequence applied for relief to

Hieron of Syracuse, at that time on terms of hostility with Theron. The
Syracusan despot, however, instead of lending assistance to the discontented
party at Himera, betrayed their overtures to Theron, who took signal vengeance
on the unfortunate Himeraeans, putting to death a large number of the
disaffected citizens, and driving others into exile.^[8]
Shortly after, seeing that the city had suffered greatly from these severities,
and that its population was much diminished, he sought to restore its prosperity
by establishing there a new body of citizens, whom he collected from various
quarters. The greater part of these new colonists were of

Dorian
extraction; and though the two bodies of citizens were blended into one, and
continued to live harmoniously together, we find that from this period Himera
became a Doric city, and both adopted the institutions, and followed the policy,
of the other Doric states of Sicily.^[9]
This settlement seems to have taken place in

476 BCE,^[10]
and Himera continued subject to Theron till his death, in

472 BCE: but Thrasydaeus retained possession of the sovereignty for a very
short time after the death of his father, and his defeat by Hieron of Syracuse
was speedily followed by his expulsion both from Agrigentum and Himera.^[11]
In

466 BCE we find the Himeraeans, in their turn, sending a force to assist the
Syracusans in throwing off the yoke of

Thrasybulus; and, in the general settlement of affairs which followed soon
after, the exiles were allowed to return to Himera, where they appear to have
settled quietly together with the new citizens.
^[12] From
this period Diodorus expressly tells us that Himera was fortunate enough to
escape from civil dissensions,^[13]
and this good government must have secured to it no small share of the
prosperity which was enjoyed by the Sicilian cities in general during the
succeeding half-century.

But though we are told in general terms that the period which elapsed from
this re-settlement of Himera till its destruction by the Carthaginians (461–408
BCE), was one of peace and prosperity, the only notices we find of the city
during this interval refer to the part it took at the time of the

Athenian expedition to Sicily,

415 BCE. On that occasion, the Himeraeans were among the first to promise
their support to Syracuse: hence, when

Nicias
presented himself before their port with the Athenian fleet, they altogether
refused to receive him; and, shortly after, it was at Himera that

Gylippus
landed, and from whence he marched across the island to Syracuse, at the head of
a force composed in great part of Himeraean citizens.^[14]

Destruction
by Carthage

A few years after this the prosperity of the city was brought to a sudden and
abrupt termination by the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily,

408 BCE. Though the ostensible object of that armament, as it had been of
the Athenian, was the support of the

Segestans
against their neighbors, the

Selinuntines,
yet there can be no doubt that the Carthaginians, from the first, entertained
more extensive designs; and, immediately after the destruction of Selinus,

Hannibal Mago, who commanded the expedition, hastened to turn his arms
against Himera. That city was ill-prepared for defence; its fortifications were
of little strength, but the citizens made a desperate resistance, and by a
vigorous sally inflicted severe loss on the Carthaginians. They were at first
supported by a force of about 4000 auxiliaries from Syracuse, under the command
of

Diocles; but that general became seized with a panic fear for the safety of
Syracuse itself, and precipitately abandoned Himera, leaving the unfortunate
citizens to contend singlehanded against the Carthaginian power. The result
could not be doubtful, and the city was soon taken by storm: a large part of the
citizens were put to the sword, and not less than 3000 of them, who had been
taken prisoners, were put to death in cold blood by Hannibal, as a sacrifice to
the memory of his grandfather Hamilcar.^[15]
The city itself was utterly destroyed, its buildings razed to the ground, and
even the temples themselves were not spared; the Carthaginian general being
evidently desirous to obliterate all trace of a city whose name was associated
with the great defeat of his countrymen.

Diodorus, who relates the total destruction of Himera, tells us expressly
that it was never rebuilt, and that the site remained uninhabited down to his
own times.^[16]
It seems at first in contradiction with this statement, that he elsewhere
includes the Himeraeans, as well as the Selinuntines and Agrigentines, among the
exiled citizens that were allowed by the treaty, concluded with Carthage, in

405 BCE, to return to their homes, and inhabit their own cities, on
condition of paying tribute to Carthage and not restoring their fortifications.
^[17] And it
seems clear that many of them at least availed themselves of this permission, as
we find the Himeraeans subsequently mentioned among the states that declared in
favour of

Dionysius I of Syracuse, at the commencement of his great war with Carthage
in

397 BCE; though they quickly returned to the Carthaginian alliance in the
following year.^[18]
The explanation of this difficulty is furnished by

Cicero, who
tells us that, after the destruction of Himera, those citizens who had survived
the calamity of the war established themselves at

Thermae, within
the confines of the same territory, and not far from their old town.^[19]
Diodorus gives a somewhat different account of the foundation of Thermae, which
he represents as established by the Carthaginians themselves before the close of
the war, in

407 BCE.^[20]
But it is probable that both statements are substantially correct, and that the
Carthaginians founded the new town in the immediate neighbourhood of Himera, in
order to prevent the old site being again occupied; while the Himeraean exiles,
when they returned thither, though they settled in the new town, naturally
regarded themselves as still the same people, and would continue to bear the
name of Himeraeans. How completely, even at a much later period, the one city
was regarded as the representative of the other, appears from the statement of
Cicero, that when

Scipio Africanus, after the capture of Carthage, restored to the
Agrigentines and Gelenses the statues that had been carried off from their
respective cities, he at the same time restored to the citizens of Thermae those
that had been taken from Himera.^[21]
Hence we cannot be surprised to find that, not only are the Himeraeans still
spoken of as an existing people, but even that the name of Himera itself is
sometimes inadvertently used as that of their city. Thus, in

314 BCE, Diodorus tells us that, by the treaty between

Agathocles
and the Carthaginians, it was stipulated that

Heracleia, Selinus, and Himera should continue subject to Carthage as they
had been before. ^[22] It is
much more strange that we find the name of Himera reappear both in
Mela and

Pliny, though we
know from the distinct statements of Cicero and Strabo, as well as Diodorus,
that it had ceased to exist centuries before.^[23]

Foundation
of Thermae

Main article:

Termini Imerese

The new town of Thermae or Therma called for the sake of distinction Thermae
Himerenses,^[24]
which thus took the place of Himera, obviously derived its name from the hot
springs for which it was celebrated, and the first discovery of which was
connected by legends with the wanderings of

Hercules.^[25]
It appears to have early become a considerable town, though it continued, with
few and brief exceptions, to be subject to the Carthaginian rule. In the
First Punic War its
name is repeatedly mentioned. Thus, in

260 BCE, a body of

Roman
troops were encamped in the neighborhood, when they were attacked by

Hamilcar,
and defeated with heavy loss.^[26]
Before the close of the war, Thermae itself was besieged and taken by the
Romans.^[27]
Cicero relates that the Roman government restored to the Thermitani their city
and territory, with the free use of their own laws, as a reward for their steady
fidelity. ^[28] They
were on hostile terms with Rome during the First Punic War, so it can only be to
the subsequent period that these expressions apply; but the occasion to which
they refer is unknown. In the time of Cicero, Thermae appears to have been a
flourishing place, carrying on a considerable amount of trade, though the orator
speaks, of it as oppidum non maximum.^[29]
It seems to have received a

colony in
the time of
Augustus, whence we find mention in inscriptions of the Ordo et Populus
splendidissimae Coloniae Augustae Himeraeorum Thermitanorum:
^[30] and
there can be little doubt that the Thermae colonia of

Pliny in reality
refers to this town, though he evidently understood it to be Thermae Selinuntiae
(modern
Sciacca),
as he places it on the south coast between Agrigentum and Selinus.
^[31] There
is little subsequent account of Thermae; but, as its name is found in

Ptolemy and
the Itineraries, it appears to have continued in existence throughout the period
of the
Roman Empire, and probably never ceased to be inhabited, as the modern town
of

Termini Imerese retains the ancient site as well as name.^[32]
The magnificence of the ancient city, and the taste of its citizens for the
encouragement of art, are attested by Cicero, who calls it in primis Siciliae
clarum et ornatum; and some evidence of it remained, even in the days of
that orator, in the statues preserved by the Thermitani, to whom they had been
restored by Scipio, after the conquest of Carthage; and which were valuable, not
only as relics of the past, but from their high merit as works of art.^[33]
The numerous examples of coins from Himera testify to the city's wealth in
antiquity.

Current
situation

Because of extensive remains, no doubt can therefore exist with regard to the
site of Thermae, which would be, indeed, sufficiently marked by the hot springs
themselves; but the exact position of the more ancient city of Himera was a
subject of controversy until recent times. The opinion of

Cluverius, which has been followed by almost all subsequent writers into the
19th century, would place it on the left bank of the river which flows by
Termini on the west, and is thence commonly known as the Fiume di Termini,
though called in the upper part of its course Fiume San Leonardo. On this
supposition the inhabitants merely removed from one bank of the river to the
other; and this would readily explain the passages in which Himera and Thermae
appear to be regarded as identical, and where the river Himera (which
unquestionably gave name to the older city) is represented at the same time as
flowing by Thermae.^[34]
On the other hand, there is great difficulty in supposing that the Fiume San
Leonardo can be the river Himera; and all our data with regard to the latter
would seem to support which the view of

Fazello, who identifies it with the

Fiume Grande, the mouth of which is distant just 8 miles from Termini. This
is the view adopted by most modern scholarship.^[35]
This distance can hardly be said to be too great to be reconciled with Cicero's
expression, that the new settlement was established non longe ab oppido
antique;^[36]
while the addition that it was in the same territory
^[37] would
seem to imply that it was not very near the old site. It may be added, that, in
this case, the new site would have had the recommendation in the eyes of the
Carthaginians of being nearer to their own settlements of Solus and Panormus,
and, consequently, more within their command. But Fazello's view derives a
strong confirmation from the circumstance, stated by him, that the site which he
indicates, marked by the Torre di Bonfornello on the seacoast (on the left bank
of the Fiume Grande, close to its mouth), though presenting no ruins, abounded
in ancient relics, such as vases and bronzes; and numerous sepulchres had also
been brought to light.^[38]
On the other hand, neither Cluverius nor any other writer has noticed the
existence of any ancient remains on the west bank of the Himera; nor does it
appear that the site so fixed is one adapted for a city of importance.

Archaeology

The only recognizable ruin in this city is the Tempio della Vittoria (Temple
of Victory), a

Doric
structure supposedly built to commemorate the defeat of the Carthaginians
(although recently some scholars have come to doubt this hypothesis). To the
south of the temple was the town's

necropolis. Some artifacts recovered from this site are kept in a small

antiquarium. However, the more impressive displays are in

Palermo's
Museo Archeologico Regionale.

Famous
people

Himera was celebrated in antiquity as the birth place of the poet

Stesichorus, who appears, from an anecdote preserved by

Aristotle,
to have taken considerable part in the political affairs of his native city. His
statue was still preserved at Thermae in the days of Cicero, and regarded with
the utmost veneration.

Ergoteles, whose victory at the

Olympic games is celebrated by

Pindar, was a
citizen, but not a native, of Himera.
On the other hand, Thermae had the honour of being the birthplace of the tyrant

Agathocles.

.

, .

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Click here to purchase Himera Sicily 420bc Quality Authentic Ancient Rare Greek Coin Nymph & Laurel

Syracuse Sicily Under Rule Of Pyrrhos 278bc Very Rare Ancient Greek Coin Athena

May 20th, 2012 | e Ancient Greek Coins | Comments Off

Syracuse Sicily Under Rule Of Pyrrhos 278bc Very Rare Ancient Greek Coin Athena is available for sale on eBay at $600.00 (subject to changes) for a limited time. Buy it now at low price.

Item: i28213

Authentic Ancient

Coin of:

Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily
under the Rule of Pyrrhos: 278-276 B.C.

Bronze 23mm (11.59 grams) Struck 278-276 B.C.
Reference: Sear 1213 var.; B.M.C. 2.493 var.; Calciati 177 var.
ΣYPAKOΣIΩN, Head of young Hercules left, in
lion's skin headdress.
Athena Promachos advancing right, brandishing spear and holding shield; owl in
field to right.

You are bidding on the exact item pictured,

provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of

Authenticity.

Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (Greek:
Πύρρος, Pyrros; 319/318 BC—272 BC)
was a
Greek general and statesman of the

Hellenistic
era. He was king of the Greek tribe of

Molossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he
became King of

Epirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) and

Macedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of
the strongest opponents of early

Rome. Some of his battles, though successful,
cost him heavy losses, from which the term "Pyrrhic
victory" was coined. He is the subject of one of
Plutarch's

Parallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι).

Early
life

Tribes of Epirus in antiquity.

Pyrrhus was the son of

Aeacides and

Phthia, a Thessalian woman, and a second cousin
of
Alexander the Great (via Alexander's mother,
Olympias).
Pyrrhus was only two years old when his father was dethroned, in 317 BC, his
family taking refuge with

Glaukias, king of the

Taulantians, one of the largest

Illyrian tribes. Pyrrhus was raised by

Beroea, Glaukias's wife and a

Molossian of the
Aeacidae
dynasty.

Glaukias restored Pyrrhus to the throne in 306 BC until the latter was
banished again, four years later, by his enemy,
Cassander.
Thus, he went on to serve as an officer, in the

wars of the Diadochi, under his brother-in-law

Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 298 BC, Pyrrhus was
taken hostage to Alexandria, under the terms of a peace treaty made between
Demetrius and
Ptolemy I Soter. There, he married Ptolemy I's
stepdaughter
Antigone (daughter of

Berenice I of Egypt, Ptolemy's mistress, and a
Macedonian noble) and restored his kingdom in Epirus in 297 BC with financial
and military aid from Ptolemy I. Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II, puppet
of the now-deceased Seleucus, murdered. Through his marriage to Antigone, she
bore him a son called Ptolemy and possibly a daughter called Olympias.

In 295 BC, Pyrrhus transferred the capital of his kingdom to Ambrakia (modern

Arta). Next, he went to war against his former
ally and brother-in-law Demetrius, and, by 286 BC, he had taken control over the
kingdom of Macedon. Pyrrhus was driven out of Macedon by

Lysimachus in 284 BC.

Struggle
with Rome

Routes taken against Rome in the

Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC).

In 281 BC, the Greek city of

Tarentum, in

southern Italy, fell out with Rome and was
faced with a Roman attack and certain defeat. Rome had already made itself into
a major power, and was poised to subdue all the Greek cities in
Magna
Graecia. The Tarentines asked Pyrrhus to lead their war against the
Romans.

Pyrrhus was encouraged to aid the Tarentines by the oracle of
Delphi.
His goals were not, however, selfless. He recognized the possibility of carving
out an empire for himself in Italy. He made an alliance with

Ptolemy Ceraunus, King of Macedon and his most
powerful neighbor, and arrived in
Italy in 280 BC.

He entered Italy with an army consisting of 3,000
cavalry,
2,000
archers, 500

slingers, 20,000
infantry
and 20
war elephants in a bid to subdue the Romans.
The elephants had been loaned to him by

Ptolemy II, who had also promised 9,000
soldiers and a further 50 elephants to defend Epirus while Pyrrhus and his army
were away.

Due to his superior cavalry and his elephants, he defeated the Romans, led by
Consul

Publius Valerius Laevinus, in the

Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC. There are conflicting sources about
casualties.
Hieronymus of Cardia reports the Romans lost
about 7,000 while Pyrrhus lost 3,000 soldiers, including many of his best.
Dionysius gives a bloodier view of 15,000 Roman dead and 13,000 Greek. Several
tribes including the

Lucani,
Bruttii,

Messapians, and the Greek cities of

Croton and
Locri
joined Pyrrhus. He then offered the Romans a peace treaty which was eventually
rejected. Pyrrhus spent winter in
Campania.

When Pyrrhus invaded
Apulia (279 BC), the two armies met in the

Battle of Asculum where Pyrrhus won a very
costly victory. The consul

Publius Decius Mus was the Roman commander, and
his able force, though defeated, broke the back of Pyrrhus' Hellenistic army,
and guaranteed the security of the city itself. The battle foreshadowed later
Roman victories over more numerous and well armed successor state military
forces and inspired the term "Pyrrhic
victory", meaning a victory which comes at a crippling cost. At the
end, the Romans had lost 6,000 men and Pyrrhus 3,500 but, while battered, his
army was still a force to be reckoned with.

Ruler
of Sicily

In 278 BC, Pyrrhus received two offers simultaneously. The Greek cities in
Sicily
asked him to come and drive out
Carthage, which along with Rome was one of the
two great powers of the Western

Mediterranean. At the same time, the

Macedonians, whose King Ceraunus had been
killed by invading
Gauls, asked Pyrrhus to ascend the throne of
Macedon. Pyrrhus decided that Sicily offered him a greater opportunity, and
transferred his army there.

Pyrrhus was proclaimed king of Sicily. He was already making plans for his
son Helenus to inherit the kingdom of Sicily and his other son Alexander to be
given Italy. In 277 BC, Pyrrhus captured

Eryx, the strongest Carthaginian fortress in
Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect
to Pyrrhus.

In 276 BC, Pyrrhus negotiated with the Carthaginians. Although they were
inclined to come to terms with Pyrrhus, supply him money and send him ships once
friendly relations were established, he demanded that Carthage abandon all of
Sicily and make the Libyan Sea a boundary between themselves and the Greeks. The
Greek cities of Sicily opposed making peace with Carthage because the
Carthaginians still controlled the powerful fortress of

Lilybaeum, on the western end of the island.
Pyrrhus eventually gave in to their proposals and broke off the peace
negotiations. Pyrrhus' army then began besieging Lilybaeum. For two months he
launched unsuccessful assaults on the city, until finally he realised he could
not mount an effective siege without blockading it from the sea as well. Pyrrhus
then requested manpower and money from the Sicilians in order to construct a
powerful fleet. When the Sicilians became unhappy about these contributions he
had to resort to compulsory contributions and force to keep them in line. These
measures culminated in him proclaiming a military dictatorship of Sicily and
installing military garrisons in Sicilian cities.

These actions were deeply unpopular and soon Sicilian opinion became inflamed
against him. Pyrrhus had so alienated the Sicilian Greeks that they were willing
to make common cause with the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians took heart from
this and sent another army against him. This army was promptly defeated. In
spite of this victory Sicily continued to grow increasingly hostile to Pyrrhus,
who began to consider abandoning Sicily. At this point Samnite and Tarentine
envoys reached Pyrrhus and informed him that of all the Greek cities in Italy
only Tarentum had not been conquered by Rome. Pyrrhus made his decision and
departed from Sicily. As his ship left the island, he turned and said to his
companions: "What a wrestling ground we are leaving, my friends, for the
Carthaginians and the Romans."

Retreat
from Italy

While Pyrrhus had been campaigning against the Carthaginians, the Romans
rebuilt their army by calling up thousands of fresh

recruits. When Pyrrhus returned from Sicily, he
found himself vastly outnumbered against a superior Roman army. After the
inconclusive

Battle of Beneventum in 275 BC, Pyrrhus decided
to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus which resulted in the loss of
all his Italian holdings. Before leaving Italy Pyrrhus sent requests for
military and financial assistance to Greece and Macedon, as well as to the
Hellenic empires of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties. These appeals were all
in vain.

Last
wars and death

Though his western campaign had taken a heavy toll on his army as well as his
treasury, Pyrrhus went to war yet again. Attacking King

Antigonus II Gonatas, he won an easy victory
and seized the Macedonian throne.

In 272 BC,

Cleonymus, a Spartan of royal blood who was
hated among fellow

Spartans, asked Pyrrhus to attack Sparta and
place him in power. Pyrrhus agreed to the plan intending to win control of the

Peloponnese for himself but unexpected strong resistance thwarted his
assault on Sparta. He was immediately offered an opportunity to intervene in a
civic dispute in
Argos. Entering the city with his army by
stealth, he found himself caught in a confused battle in the narrow city
streets. During the confusion an old Argead woman watching from a rooftop threw
a roofing tile which stunned him, allowing an Argive soldier to behead him.

The same year, upon hearing the news of Pyrrhus' death, the Tarentinians
surrendered to Rome.

Legacy

While he was a mercurial and often restless leader, and not always a wise
king, he was considered one of the greatest military commanders of his time.
Plutarch
records that
Hannibal ranked Pyrrhus as the greatest
commander the world had ever seen, though
Appian
gives a different version of the story, in which Hannibal placed him second
after
Alexander the Great.

Pyrrhus was also known to be very benevolent. As a general, Pyrrhus' greatest
political weaknesses were his failures to maintain focus and to maintain a
strong treasury at home (many of his soldiers were costly mercenaries).

His name is famous for the term "Pyrrhic
victory" which refers to an exchange at the

Battle of Asculum. In response to
congratulations for winning a costly victory over the Romans, he is reported to
have said: "One more such victory will undo me!" (Greek:
Ἂν ἔτι μίαν μάχην νικήσωμεν, ἀπολώλαμεν)

Pyrrhus and his campaign in Italy was effectively the only chance for Greece
to check the advance of Rome towards domination of the Mediterranean world.
Rather than banding together, the various Hellenic powers continued to fight
among themselves, sapping the financial and military strength of Greece and to a
lesser extent, Macedon and the greater Hellenic world. By
197 BC,
Macedonia and the southern Greek city-states were under the control of Rome and
the age of Greece as a major power was well and truly over. In
188 BC,
the Seleucid Empire was forced to cede most of

Asia Minor to Rome and Egypt was left as the
last vestige of

Alexander's Empire. Total Roman domination over
Greece was marked by the

destruction of Corinth in 146 BC; Greece would
then form an integral part of the Roman world leading into the

Byzantine ages.

Pyrrhus wrote

Memoirs and several books on the art of
war. These have since been lost, although, according to Plutarch, Hannibal was
influenced by them, and they received praise from Cicero.

Syracuse pronounced,

Sicilian: Sarausa,

Ancient Greek: Συράκουσαι –

transliterated: Syrakousai) is a historic

city in

southern Italy, the

capital of the

province of Syracuse. The city is famous for its rich Greek history,

culture,

amphitheatres,

architecture and association to

Archimedes,

playing an important role in ancient times as one of the top powers of the

Mediterranean world; it is over 2,700 years old. Syracuse is located in the

south-east corner of the island of

Sicily, right

by the Gulf of Syracuse next to the

Ionian Sea.

The city was founded by

Ancient Greek

Corinthians and became a very powerful

city-state.

Syracuse was allied with

Sparta and

Corinth,

exerting influence over the entire

Magna Grecia area of which it was the most important city. Once

described by
Cicero

as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all", it later became

part of the

Roman Republic and

Byzantine Empire. After this

Palermo

overtook it in importance, as the capital of the

Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the

Kingdom of Naples to form the

Two Sicilies until the

Italian unification of 1860.

In the modern day, the city is listed by

UNESCO as a

World Heritage Site along with the

Necropolis of Pantalica. In the central area, the city itself has a

population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans,

and the local language spoken by its inhabitants is the

Sicilian language. Syracuse is mentioned in the

Bible in the

Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as

Paul stayed there.^[2]

The

patron saint of the city is

Saint Lucy;

she was born in Syracuse and her feast day,

Saint Lucy's Day, is celebrated on 13 December.

Greek period

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as

shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio,

Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship

with

Mycenaean Greece.

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from

Corinth and
Tenea,

led by the oecist (colonizer)

Archias, who called it Sirako, referring to a nearby salt marsh. The

nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers

found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to

their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most

powerful Greek city anywhere in the

Mediterranean. Colonies were founded at

Akrai (664 BC),

Kasmenai (643 BC),

Akrillai

(VII century BC),

Helorus (VII century BC) and

Kamarina

(598 BC). The descendants of the first colonist, called Gamoroi, held the

power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the

city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of

Gelo, ruler of

Gela. Gelo himself

became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and

Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters of

Tyche and

Neapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new

theater, designed by

Damocopos, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn

attracted personalities as

Aeschylus,

Ario of

Metimma, Eumelos of

Corinth and

Sappho, who had

been exiled here from

Mytilene.

The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the

Carthaginians, who ruled western Sicily. In the

Battle of Himera, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of

Agrigento,

decisively defeated the African force led by

Hamilcar. A

temple,

entitled to
Athena

(on the site of the today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate

the event

Gelon was succedeed by his brother

Hiero, who

fought against the

Etruscans at

Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like

Simonides of Ceos,

Bacchylides and

Pindar, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by

Thrasybulos (467 BC). The city continued to expand in

Sicily,

fighting against the rebellious

Siculi, and on the

Tyrrhenian Sea, making expeditions up to

Corsica and

Elba. In the late

5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with

Athens, which

sought more resources to fight the

Peloponnesian War. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from

Sparta, Athens'

foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to

starve on the island (see

Sicilian Expedition). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000

hoplites and a general to

Cyrus the Younger's

Army of the Ten Thousand.

Then in the early 4th century BC, the

tyrant

Dionysius the Elder was again at war against

Carthage

and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole

of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on

the
Ortygia

island of the city and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period

of expansion saw the destruction of

Naxos,

Catania and

Lentini, then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After

various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse

itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC

allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of

Adrano,
Ancona,

Adria, Tindari

and Tauromenos, and conquering

Reggio Calabria on the continent. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was

famous as a patron of art, and

Plato himself

visited Syracuse several times.

His successor was

Dionysius the Younger, who was however expelled by

Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion,

and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. A democratic government was

installed by

Timoleon in 345 BC. The long series of internal struggles had weakened

Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the

Carthaginians in 339 BC near the

Krimisos river. But the struggle among the city's parties restarted after

his death and ended with the rise of another tyrant,

Agathocles,

who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage,

with alternate fortunes. He however scored a moral success, bringing the war to

the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy.

The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the

Carthaginians interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of

Agathocles (289 BC). The citizens called

Pyrrhus of Epirus for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus,

Hiero II seized power in 275 BC.

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which

Syracause became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the

so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their

administration of Sicily; he also had the theater enlarged and a new immense

altar, the "Hiero's

Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the

natural philosopher

Archimedes.

Among his many inventions were various military engines including the

claw of Archimedes, later used to resist the

Roman

siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included

Theocritus

and others.

Hiero's successor, the young

Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after

their defeat at the

Battle of Cannae and accepted

Carthage's

support. The Romans, led by consul

Marcus Claudius Marcellus,

besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in

212 BC. It is believed to have fallen due to a peace party opening a small door

in the wall to negotiate a peace, but the Romans charged through the door and

took the city, killing Archimedes in the process.

From

Roman domination to the Middle Ages

Though declining slowly by the years, Syracuse maintained the status of

capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the

praetor. It

remained an important port for the trades between the Eastern and the Western

parts of the Empire.

Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of

Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it

one of the main centres of

proselytism in the West. In the age of the persecutions massive

catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

After a period of

Vandal rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered by

Belisarius

for the

Byzantine Empire (31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of

Emperor

Constans II, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.

Another siege in 878, resulted in the city coming under two centuries of

Muslim rule. The

capital was moved from Syracuse to

Palermo. The

Cathedral was converted into a

mosque and the

quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The

city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a

relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including

Ibn Hamdis,

the most important Sicilian poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

In 1038, the Byzantine general

George Maniaces reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to

Constantinople. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name,

although it was built under the

Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085 the

Normans

entered Syracuse, one of the last

Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by

Roger I of Sicily and his son

Jordan of Hauteville, who was given the city as count. New quarters were

built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

In 1194

Henry VI of

Swabia occupied Syracuse. After a short period of

Genoese rule (1205–1220), which favoured a rise of trades, Syracuse was

conquered back by emperor

Frederick II. He began the construction of the

Castello Maniace, the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's

death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the struggle between the

Anjou and

Aragonese monarchies, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and defeated the

Anjou in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward.

The pre-eminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the

palaces of
Abela,

Chiaramonte,
Nava,

Montalto.